We’re not exactly to the point where the wolves are dwelling with the lambs, but new research indicates that the impact of wolves on elk may be overstated, and the so-called “landscape of fear” may not actually exist.

Under the theory of “landscape of fear,” which first emerged in the 1990s when wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park, elk would avoid risky places where they could be attacked by wolves, living under a perpetual haze of fear.

After a study from Utah State University ecologists Michel Kohl and Dan MacNulty, it turns out that the “landscape of fear” may be a myth, and that elk habitually visit risky areas at times when it’s unlikely wolves are active. In other words, the elks figured out that the wolves were only active at dusk and dawn and pretty lazy the rest of the night, leaving the elk plenty of time to access the risky areas.

“Contrary to popular belief, the wolf is not a round-the-clock threat to elk; it mostly hunts at dawn and dusk, and this allows elk to safely access risky places during nightly lulls in wolf activity,” says Kohl. “Despite their Hollywood portrayal as nighttime prowlers, wolves tend to hunker down at night because their vision is not optimized for nocturnal hunting.”

According to a Utah State University story on the study, “the researchers revisited data from 27 GPS radio-collared elk that had been collected in the early years after the reintroduction, 2001-2004, but never fully analyzed. These collars recorded the location of each elk every 4-6 hours. This was the first time GPS technology had been used to track Yellowstone elk, and no one imagined that elk might sync their habitat use to the wolf’s 24-hour schedule. Little was known about this schedule until researchers first equipped wolves with GPS collars in 2004.”

“In the days before GPS, when we tracked wolves by sight and with VHF radio-telemetry, we knew they hunted mainly in the morning and evening, but we didn’t know much about what they did at night,” says MacNulty, a veteran Yellowstone wolf researcher and associate professor in USU’s Department of Wildland Resources and the USU Ecology Center. “GPS data showed that wolves were about as inactive in the middle of the night as they were in the middle of the day.”

Kohl used the GPS data to quantify the 24-hour schedule of wolves, and he compared how elk use of risky places — sites where wolves killed elk — differed between periods of high and low wolf activity, says the USU story.

“Elk avoided the riskiest places when wolves were most active, but they had no problem using these same places when wolves were least active,” says Kohl. “An elk’s perception of a place as dangerous or safe, its landscape of fear, was highly dynamic with ‘peaks’ and ‘valleys’ that alternated across the 24-hr cycle in response to the ups and downs of wolf activity.”

“Our results can explain why many other studies found no clear-cut effect of wolf predation risk on elk stress levels, body condition, pregnancy or herbivory,” says MacNulty. “If our results reflect typical elk behavior, then actual killing rather than fear probably drives most, if not all, of the effect of wolves on elk and any cascading effect on the plants that elk eat such as aspen and willow.”

Photo courtesy National Park Service.

Types of Trees Native to Montana

Of all U.S. states, Montana has the fourth largest geographic area. Montana has a rapidly growing tourist industry, with about 13 million visitors each year.

When it comes to natural splendor, Montana is an amazing state. If you are planning on taking a trip to the state, you will want to prep yourself on some of the basics associated with the outdoor beauty that is Montana. For example, you will want to have an understanding about some of the trees that are native to Montana.

Ponderosa Pine

The Ponderosa pine is the Montana state tree. The ponderosa pine is the most widely distributed type of pine tree in the United States. It also grows to being one the largest pine trees in the country as well. The Ponderosa Pine is also known as the Bull Pine, Blackjack Pine, or Western Yellow Pine.

The bark of the Ponderosa Pine sets it apart from other derivations of the pine tree. The bark of the Ponderosa Pine is yellow to orange-red in color.

Douglas Fir

Unlike the Ponderosa Pine, the Douglas Fir has a much smaller area in which this tree can be found growing. The Douglas Fir normally is found in the moist soil on the north facing side of mountains. The Douglas Fir grows at moderate elevations to between 5,000 and a bit over 7,000 feet.

The Douglas Fir is classified as a evergreen conifer species. It grows throughout the Rocky Mountains.

Douglas Firs grow to become medium size to very large evergreen trees. Away from its natural environment like Montana, Douglas Fir trees are widely used as ornamental growths in residential and other types of landscaping.

Lodgepole Pine

Native to Montana, the Lodgepole Pine is also known as the Shore Pine, the Twisted Pine, and the Contorta Pine. The moniker Lodgepole Pine originates from the fact that native people of North America utilizes these trees as poles for their teepees or lodges.

Lodgepole Pines grow in dense stands. They grow at a elevation between 3,000 and 8,500 feet.

Lodgepole Pine trees have a unique interaction with fire. The cone of a Lodgepole Pine may remain opened for years. The moment a Lodgepole Pine is exposed to fire, the cone will open and spread seeds into the burned soil surrounding the tree. Thus, this type of tree is able to rebound following a fire in fairly quick speed.

Western Larch

The Western Larch is another tree native to Montana. The tree grows at elevations between 2,000 and 7,000 feet. The Western Larch prefers moist locations. The Western Larch is a type of conifer that loses its needles in the fall, as is the case with deciduous trees.

The Western Larch is a slow-growing tree. The tree can grow to be quite large. In addition, the Western Larch is capable of living over 500 years.

The Western Larch has an interesting history when it comes to health and human beings. The Western Larch was used by Plateau Indian tribes for medicinal purposes. The drank an infusion made from young shoots of the Western Larch. The infusion was used to treat tuberculosis and laryngitis.

Subalpine Fir

Another tree native to the state of Montana is the Subalpine Fir. The Subalpine Fir grows at any elevation of about 3,500 to the tree line. This is conifer that can grow in a number of different conditions. The tree grows in extremely cold as well as dry climates.

The Subalpine Fir is classified as a medium size tree. The bark on young Subalpine Firs is smooth, gray, and has resin blisters. When the tree grows older, its bark becomes rough and scaly.

Aspen

The Aspen tree is also native to the state of Montana. Aspen trees favor cooler climates across the northern region of the Northern Hemisphere, making Montana an ideal location for this tree.

Aspen trees commonly are found in moist locations. This includes areas near streams or at spring fed groves.

Aspen trees are readily identified in the fall because of their gold leaves. Indeed, people visit Montana in the fall to take in Aspen trees as their leaves change color.

Visit Montana

As mentioned previously, tourism is big business in Montana. The state is home to two fantastic national parks. These are Glacier and Yellowstone.

If you want more information about planning a trip to Montana, you can call Visit Montana at (800) 847-4868. The experienced team at Visit Montana can assist you in planning all aspects of your visit to Big Sky Country.

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Jessica Kane is a professional blogger who writes for Scaffold Store, the favorite and trusted scaffold supplier of the largest contractors.

Mission Mountains Wilderness – A Unique Example of Federal-Tribal Cooperation

The Mission Range, or Mission Mountains, are a short, north-south chain of mountains, approximately 50 miles long, and is located in western Montana between the Swan and Flathead Rivers and between Missoula and Kalispell.  It is composed largely of a dark sedimentary-type rock known as "Belt Rock".  The higher peaks are at the south end, with McDonald Peak as the tallest at 9,820 feet.  The range slowly tapers to nothing by Big Fork, where the Swan River turns west to enter Flathead Lake.

The crest of the Mission Range forms the east boundary of the Flathead Reservation, while the east slopes are part of the Flathead National Forest.  This range makes up part of the extensive aboriginal lands used by the Salish, Pend d’Oreille and Kootenai Peoples for millenia for hunting, fishing, berries, medicinal plants and spiritual purposes.

Protection of the Mission Range dates back to the 1930s.  In 1931 67,000 acres of the east side of the range was designated at the “Mission Mountains Primitive Area”.  Over the subsequent years, additional acreage was added to bring that total to 73,207 acres.  In 1975 the Mission Mountain Wilderness was established by Congress under the 1964 National Wilderness Preservation System.

On the west side, the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes (CSKT) were as enthusiastic about setting aside these peaks from development.  In 1936, the CSKT Tribal Council proposed setting aside this land in the form of a Native National Park – an idea that seemed to have died later in Washington DC.  However, the next year, 1937,  Chief Forester for the Office of Indian Affairs, Bob Marshall, (yes that Bob Marshall) classified the Reservation side of the Mission Range as a roadless area.  This designation stayed in place until 1959, when at the request of the Tribes, this classification was lifted.  Facing the threat in the 1970s from the Bureau of Indian Affairs to log the tribal side of the Missions, many tribal members helped spearhead an effort to save the mountains in their pristine condition.  Finally, in 1982, Tribal Council passed the Mission Mountains Tribal Wilderness Management Plan, which set aside 91,778 acres of the west side of the Mission Mountains as permanent wilderness.  This was the first tribal wilderness to be formally established.

These two areas now constitute just under 165,000 contiguous wilderness acres encompassing forested slopes at the lower elevations, and high mountain valleys, subalpine and alpine lakes, creeks, cascades and waterfalls, rocky cliffs, rugged rocky peaks and some small (receding) glaciers.  There is a high level of federal-tribal cooperation in the management of this wilderness gem. 

Recreationally, the Missions offer hikers many potential opportunities – some easy, and some more challenging off trail adventures.  The east side definitely receives more visitors than the west.  There are three main reasons for this:  1)  The larger, more fish-filled lakes tend to be on the southeast side.  These are obvious target areas for visitors, with lakes such as Gray Wolf, High Park, Crystal and Turquoise Lakes. 2) There are some easy to reach lakes on the east side for day hikes, such as Glacier Lake and Upper and Lower Cold Lakes. In fact, access is so easy to those lakes that camping is prohibited within ¼ mile of the lake shore.  Finally,  3) for non-tribal members, a nominal permit is required to enter the tribal side.  That alone seems to direct more traffic to the east side.

I live on the Reservation side, so that’s the side I visit the most.  Since more people choose the east, when I head out I have excellent opportunities for a real wilderness experience.  In fact, if I want absolute solitude, I don’t head to the backcountry in Glacier NP, as awe inspiring as that is.  No, I head into the Missions.  There are so many places to get away from anyone and everyone there - on both sides to be sure, but particularly on the west side.  All one needs is a little off-trail savvy.  Once one gets above a certain elevation, the terrain becomes much more open and cross-country travel is not that difficult. That opens up so many more possibilities that just a trail along the valley floor.

One word of caution about the Missions’ 2 main predators.  The Tribes maintain a Grizzly Bear Conservation Zone around McDonald Peak.  No-one is allowed in this zone from July15 – October 1.  There is a healthy grizzly bear population in the Missions so bring bear spray and be smart about odors.  And the other predator? Mosquitoes!  There’s an even healthier population of those in July and August so bring your DEET!  Either way, get out there and enjoy what this corner of Montana has to offer.  We live in such a beautiful state, don’t we?

Happy Trails! - Doug Stevens is the Graytrekker

For further information check out these websites:

https://www.wilderness.net/toolboxes/documents/IFST/Mission%20Mountains%20Tribal%20Wilderness%20Case%20Study%202005.pdf

https://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=360

https://www.wilderness.net/toolboxes/documents/WC/Mission%20Mountains%20Wilderness,%20Wilderness%20Character%20Monitoring,%20Final%20Report,%202012.pdf

In my travels, I have noticed how food reflects the local culture, the flavors from a region, and unique dishes passed on from generation to generation.  Not until I returned to my roots in rural Montana this past winter did I realize how evolved my tastes had become and how I had to embrace what was part of my past and likely a part of my future.  Last December when I drove the 1,500 miles home, if I had known how life would unfold I would have packed my Vitamix.

Initially it was only to be a month-long trip to see my family for the holidays. Definitely not a one-way drive. Yet months later, here I am sitting in my parents living room. (I met a wonderful guy the day after coming home but that’s for another blog.)  How could I take so much time off?  See, I was living in Santa Barbara, CA and I had just been laid off about 6 weeks before the holidays.  With a great severance package, I decided to pack up my belongings and put all of my household stuff in storage (where it still is today), and save some money, typically spent on expensive Santa Barbara rent, until I returned mid-January.  The day I left and drove down highway 101 the wildfires were literally raging up the coast from Ventura to Santa Barbara which eventually turned out to be one of California’s largest wildfires on record followed by devastating mudslides. As I drove out of the smoke, my little SUV was packed with my dog, ski’s, Christmas presents, and a ton of clothes.   I was looking forward to getting out of the ash to the fresh air of Montana.

Montana.  

I arrived on a sunny day in mid-December and the next day was the beginning of one of the most epic winters on record. Extreme cold (-40 at times) and record snowfall (some days 12+ inches) for months was tough, but because I grew up in this environment, the 4th generation on a cattle ranch, I knew how the weather could be. It was funny how I would get double takes when people would see my California plates navigating the icy conditions. While both the weather and staying with my parents were MAJOR adjustments, I also had to reacclimatize to food and the culture around food that I had forgotten. In my 20+ years since leaving for college, I had lived in Seattle, Portland, Minneapolis and of course Santa Barbara – all places with amazing food and a whole gamma of choices. In addition, I enjoyed a career that took me all around the world and changed my pallet to appreciate a wide array of tastes and cultures. The variety and having really fresh healthy options became more of the norm in my life.  And coming back to a rural town of less than 1,500 people where the next big town over was a mere 10,000 people, I realized quickly there was a food culture that I had known growing up that hadn’t changed very much, but I had.

One thing I love that isn’t as common in more urban environments is the frequency of hosting dinners at home with family or friends. To say I ate out at restaurants a lot in my most recent hometown of Santa Barbara is putting it mildly.  I would venture to guess I had dinner out at least 3 nights a week. It was an urban lifestyle with plenty of places to choose from and my house was walking distance to many dining options.  Maybe it’s just the culture or because of smaller dwellings but people in urban areas just don’t entertain at home for dinner as often.  Entertaining at home is common in rural Montana as many towns have few or no restaurants (other than the local bar or bowling alley that may at most serve up a frozen pizza).  Even growing up, I remember after high school games going to the homes of friends for food and drinks, which is still common.  This winter the guy I’m dating cooked for me a number of times including grilling venison (from a deer he shot the year prior) and on St. Patty’s Day, he also made corned-beef and cabbage in his slow cooker. It was loaded with veggies and was perfect when the weather was still bitterly cold.

Even eating out at the local restaurants took some adjusting.  While many areas of Montana do have very sophisticated dining options (Whitefish, Missoula, or Bozeman), where I am located the nearest airport (and Starbucks) is over 100 miles away.  Some of the same bars and restaurants my parents went to when they dated (50+ years ago) are still here.  How would you like your potato? Mashed? Hashed? Baked? Twice baked? French Fries? Tater Tots? Sweet Potato? This is a standard question when ordering most main dishes and I still longingly hope to see riced or mashed cauliflower as a side option, or maybe find avocado toast listed as an a starter option on the menu. Mmmm…

Say what you want about Amazon, but it was my saving grace. I was able to order maca powder, quinoa, chia and hemp seeds. There are no Whole Foods or Trader Joes in Montana but luckily I discovered in the nearby town there is a modest natural food store where I can find almond flour, Kombucha, and Ezekiel bread. The local meat store has salmon and sea bass and the main local grocery store had almond milk, coconut oil, and organic chicken.  My dad would roll his eyes as I would unpack things and of course jokingly questioned me on how almonds actually make milk. At home one cold night I made my own baked crusted salmon and quinoa with spinach, feta cheese and olives.  It was a nice reminder that I could, in fact, have some variety.

Now I know what you’re thinking. Am I too high maintenance with my food choices? No.  I enjoy Doritos just as much as the next person. But in the past 5 years I have had a host of health issues and one key point I find is that paying attention to what you eat is important. Plus, over the years I just had the benefit of everything from vegan, gluten free, sushi, tapas, seafood, Indian and Mexican restaurants.

Yes, I miss things.  I miss seeing more gluten free options or organic details called out on menus. I miss going weekly to the farmers markets and getting fresh fruits and veggies or living near neighbors who would share lemons and avocados picked from their own trees. Do I think it’s odd that a city of 130,000 in California allows people to have chickens in their backyard and a town of 10,000 in Montana doesn’t? Yes. I loved having fresh eggs brought into the office by my coworkers.  I miss seeing the “catch of the day” listed and knowing it really was caught just that day. I miss great brunch places and organic coffee houses that slow pour their coffees.

But I love Montana. There are amazing things here.  Besides local beef, lamb and pork, there is trout, bison and venison. Pitchfork fondue is something I still have only experienced in Montana.  The different towns have summer farmers markets with fresh vegetables grown by the various Hutterite Colonies.  Fresh picked Flathead cherries are seasonally available and you can find huckleberries infused in all sort of chocolates, coffees and deserts.  The pies in the 4-H booth at the local county fair are my favorite with every kind from apple to blueberry to cherry.  And I’ll be able to find fresh lefsa at some of the church bazaars and fresh bread, muffins, scones, cinnamon rolls and buns are already often found in bakeries and coffee shops in the area. Organic farming is more and more prevalent and I was recently introduced to some locally grown organic Kracklin Kamut made with sea salt (check out http://www.kracklinkamut.com) as a snack.   Honey made in local hives (like I had on the ranch growing up) is always a sweet thing (pun intended) and of course great beer from Montana brewers who are popping up more and more these days in our rural area.

Don’t get me wrong, Montana has evolved a lot in culinary options and I’m not completely secluded from these, they are really just a drive away. While I may miss some things that used to be just down the street, I know I can still go to the bigger Montana cities or resort areas and find them.  And it’s a great excuse to travel back to those other cities to enjoy their local flavors. Or I can just get creative and learn to cook some things I can’t find.  But I enjoy this rural life, the people, the communities, and the food choices that span back generations with recipes passed down from family to family.  I love that a friend had me over for a visit and chopped rhubarb for me out of her backyard so I could make a dessert.

And when I’m enjoying one of those local beers, eating s’mores by the campfire in Glacier Park under the “Big Sky” full of stars this summer, ask me again what I’m missing…. my answer will be nothing.